The Bridges of Newcastle

Posted on 23 April, 2025 by nspeccoll

While recently working through our University Archives, we discovered some interesting negatives of plans of our local bridges. The bridges of Newcastle that stretch across the Tyne are intrinsically linked to Newcastle University, from our wonderful collections of books and archives within Special Collections, our School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape, to our events such as Pioneers of Change and the Discover Festival. Both the University and the city are steeped in rich heritage and some of the most famous landmarks, loved by Geordies and visitors alike, are the bridges over the River Tyne, with five of them squeezed into less than a mile! These bridges allow road, rail and pedestrians access to the city from Gateshead and the surrounding southern towns.

The earliest known bridge is thought to be the Pons Aelius, said to be built by the Emperor Hadrian in connection with the Roman wall that extends across the city. This bridge was destroyed in the city fires of 1248 and replaced by a mediaeval bridge called the Newcastle Bridge. The mediaeval bridge stood for five hundred years but was destroyed in the winter floods of 1771. Six people lost their lives, and multiple houses were washed down river.

*Newcastle Mediaeval Bridge* [Local Illustrations, ILL/B258]

In 1781 a new Georgian bridge was built, comprising of nine stone arches and designed by Robert Mylne, but by 1850 the Tyne Improvement Commission decided that this new bridge caused an obstruction to river traffic and the further industrial development on the Tyne.

*Georgian Bridge with the High-Level Bridge* [19th Century Collection , 19th C. Coll 914.282]

As such it was removed in 1865, with a temporary bridge in place while new plans were created. In 1873 the new design for a moving bridge was created and in 1876 the Swing Bridge was built. At the time of construction, it was the largest swing bridge to have been built. The Hydraulic accumulator used to rotate this bridge to allow for sea traffic, was designed by a local Newcastle engineer and industrialist named William Armstrong. In 1894, Armstrong’s company Elswick also built and installed the steam-driven pumping engines, hydraulic accumulators and hydraulic pumping engines that operate London’s Tower Bridge. The swing bridge in Newcastle was originally steam powered with controls over the roadway and two hydraulic pumps on the central pier. During its busiest year of operation, the bridge swung open 6,000 times. Although it is the same bridge that you can see and cross on the River Tyne today, due to mechanical failures after restoration work, the last time the bridge was in action was in August 2021.

*The opening of the High-Level Bridge* [Local Illustrations, ILL-/C592]

Prior to the Swing Bridge being constructed, work had begun on another famous Newcastle bridge. The High-Level Bridge. This bridge competed in 1849 and opened by Queen Victoria, is another feat of engineering. Showcasing a double-decker style of bridge that carries both road and rail traffic in and out of the city. Designed by Robert Stephenson (son of George Stephenson), it spans 1,350 feet and provided the much-needed links to Darlington and Berwick railway stations from Newcastle. The High-Level Bridge is a grade 1 listed structure with the main structural elements being cast iron (replaced by wrought Iron later), with timber rail decking (later replaced with steel). The High-Level Bridge is now the oldest bridge in Newcastle that still stands to this day.

*Construction plans of the High-Level Bridge* [G/046156-012, University Archives]

In 1925 construction started on a new bridge and in 1928 the (now) famous Northeast bridge The Tyne, was opened by King George V. This Grade II listed bridge was engineered with the new and fast changing world of motorised vehicles in mind. Made of British steel, at the time of its opening it was the world’s longest spanning bridge. On the design team for the bridge was the first woman to gain a membership to the Institute of Civil Engineers, Dorothy Buchanan. In March 2024, Dorothy was honoured by Newcastle Universities Centre for Heritage in partnership with The Common Room, and a commemorative plaque was installed at the Tyne Bridge.

*Construction plans for the Tyne Bridge* [G/046156-009, University Archives]

The Tyne Bridge has an impressive steel arch design and uses a method of construction called cantilevering; the same process as used on the Sydney Harbour Bridge but tested first in Newcastle. The Neoclassical and Art Deco towers point to the industrial pride of Tyneside and the architectural works by John Dobson that are seen around Newcastle to this day.

For more information on this history of Newcastle’s bridges:

For more information on Newcastle University Pioneers of Change

To get involved (and have a go at building a bridge)

For further reading, these books can be requested from Newcastle University Special collections:

‘Christie’s new plan of Newcastle upon Tyne and Gateshead’ by John Christie. 1864
‘The three bridges, Roman, mediaeval and modern, over the Tyne at Newcastle: a paper read before the Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle’ by J. Collingwood. 1872
‘Visit to Newcastle upon Tyne and Gateshead of Their Majesties King George V. and Queen Mary: to open Tyne Bridge’. City Council. 1928

Town and gown on the Tyne

Posted on 23 April, 2025 by nspeccoll

A poster display concerned with improving student awareness of Jesmond, Newcastle and the North East, featuring material from Newcastle University’s Special Collections & Archives, on the evolution of data visualization for social improvement.

People often have a poor understanding of the demographic and social profile of the areas in which they live.

The posters displayed in this exhibition explore this problem in the context of so-called ‘town and gown’ tensions in Jesmond and other areas around Newcastle University.

Today the perceived divide between locals and students is often framed in the context of ‘studentification,’ (the growth of student populations within neighbourhoods around universities) which is thought to exacerbate a range of social problems.

That said, as the news stories from University’s student newspaper, The Courier displayed in cabinet 4 show, tensions between locals and students are far from a new problem here in Newcastle.

This exhibition seeks, in a modest sense, to address some of these problems particularly those concerned with perceptions and with communication, by making public data more engaging, and (hopefully) more memorable.

Data visualization is an increasingly familiar aspect of modern (online) media consumption.

But as the archival material in cabinets 1, 2 and 3 indicate, data visualization has a long history, particularly in terms of improving (expert) awareness around health matters.

It is a history that has its roots in the spread of diseases in Newcastle and the North East during the early 19^th century, to the localised public health initiatives of the late 19^th century, and eventually, to government’s growing dependence on statistics across a broad range of policy fields, through the twentieth, and into the twenty-first century.

Map of Newcastle upon Tyne, prevalent zymotic diseases, 1879

Map of Newcastle upon Tyne, prevalent zymotic diseases, 1882

That said, visualized data are not universally appreciated and are not always well-understood.

During the UK’s 2023 COVID Inquiry, former Prime Minister Boris Johnson was said, by his then Chief Scientific Advisor, Sir Patrick Vallance, to have often been ‘bamboozled’ by the daily graphs produced to track the crisis.

Ideas about how data visualizations communicate are often based on a computational theory of cognition, that assumes that thought is enacted through activity in the brain.

But while this approach may be helpful in terms of helping explain comprehension and reasoning, it tells us little about what people find attractive, engaging, and appealing.

Alternatively, an embodied approach to cognition, based on the premise that knowledge is grounded in our bodies, and in our bodily, sensory and emotional interactions with the world, may yield new knowledge here.

In this view, what we find appealing in data visualizations is an important factor in better understand how and why we engage with them, and how potentially impactful they may be.

The method used in this poster display was initially developed during a pilot poster display study concerned with improving local awareness about civic data, in Jesmond during the summer of 2023.

This project was concerned with exploring a key empirical finding in the literature, namely that redundancy (or repetition) across different communicative modes seems to be an important factor in making data visualizations more memorable.

The pilot sought to broaden the scope for thinking about what ‘redundancy’ might include, beyond merely the charts and titles used, to incorporate a range of multimodal and structuring devices (including visual artefacts, typography, and dramaturgical devices), in such a way as to mutually re-enforce the message communicated; with a view to making these media more intuitive, more likely to spur conversation, and following discussion, more likely to impact its audience.

The present project takes an experimental, interdisciplinary approach, towards addressing the following problems:

How we think visually

The selection of background images in posters may be informed by principles in cognitive metaphor theory.

This assumes that metaphors used in everyday language represent structuring devices that sit within language, mapping meaning from one (well-understood) domain to another (less understood) one, that helps us to make sense of the world.

Recurring patterns of experience are manifest in ‘image schemas’ (or scripts) that help us to negotiate certain experiences, and situations, in the world.

So, for example, a poster asking Jesmond residents in Newcastle to reflect upon what they know about where they live may be reinforced by an image of The Angel of the North, as this statue visually represents a ‘balance’ image schema (the angel’s body represents a fulcrum between its two wings), which in turn, reinforces the idea of passing judgement on something, or making a decision.

How we reason visually

The choice of data visualizations used to communicate may be informed by diagram psychology.

This approach argues that the shapes we use to communicate abstract ideas are influenced by the shapes found in the structure of the built environment, that emerged as solutions to material problems.

So, lines represent paths; circles represent cycles, boxes (ie bars in bar charts) represent containers, arrows represent asymmetrical force, and so on.

To make optimal use of this vocabulary from a cognitive point of view, it may be possible to attach meanings to them, and so avoid (for example) the use of ‘empty containers.’

So for example, where a colour (say blue) is used to attribute an identity to a variable in a display (say a bar in a bar chart), this may be contrasted with ‘empty’ containers (greyed out bars).

This approach may also be seen to relate to empirical best practice in data visualization, that recommends ‘grouping cues’ along similar lines.

How we communicate visually

In the interdisciplinary field of multimodal analysis, the arrangement of visual communication may be said to follow a structure, or a ‘grammar.’

So for example, in terms of increasing the redundancy within a visual communicative message, it may be possible to extend the notion of ‘redundancy’ to reflecting the visual arrangement within a media.

So, for example, the title ‘What do you know about North Jesmond?’ may be mapped to visual cues, read left to right on a poster; with the subject (you) and object (Jesmond) of the statement represented as symbols, images, or icons; and with the verb represented as a vector (the wings of the Angel of the North may be associated with the verb ‘know’).

The extent to which redundancy may extend to the wider design of the posters, may also be considered; concerning captions, colour schemes, font types, the presence (and arrangement) of figures, and other structural and communicative components; in a multimodal approach.

How visual stories are effectively structured

To bring all the theoretical influences in these structuring devices together into a coherent framework, it is necessary to establish some common components associated with dramaturgy and storytelling, including; plot, setting, characters, a point of view, a point of conflict and a genre.

The aim of this project, which is to encourage a re-think about how we understand data visualization, and what purpose it should serve in public life), if not the approach taken, owes a debt to an earlier innovator in data visualization – namely Danny Dorling, who today is Professor of Human Geography at the University of Oxford.

Dorling, a social geographer, has been exploring social statistics, since the publication of his PhD thesis (available to view, in cabinet 5), Visualization of Spatial Social Structure, here at Newcastle (1991).

In this work, Dorling introduced an innovative way of exploring social data through cartograms.

These are maps that distort geographical size and layout to show differences in social structure.

His reasons for doing this relate to time scales.

For example, he asks why should we use constant geological shapes when we map statistical displays, when we are primarily concerned with (relatively) short-term changes in social structures.

The data produced in this project, and the iterative improvements to creative practice they underpin, are intended to lead to an improved, and a more consistent method for impactful data design, while the theory developed will help to firmly establish a broad framework for an emergent, embodied theory of data visualization.

Written and researched by Murray Dick, Senior Lecturer In Multimedia Journalism from the School of Arts and Cultures, as part of the Town and Gown on the Tyne exhibition.

Exploring the British North Greenland Expedition Archive (1952-1954)

Posted on 21 March, 2025 by nspeccoll

The British North Greenland Expedition (BNGE) of 1952-1954 stands as a remarkable chapter in the history of polar exploration. Led by Commander James Simpson, this ambitious expedition aimed to deepen our understanding of the Greenland Ice Sheet and its surrounding environment. The archive of this expedition, housed at Newcastle University Library, offers a fascinating glimpse into the daily lives and scientific endeavours of the team who undertook groundbreaking research into the glaciology, geology and environment of this previously understudied part of the world.

Members of the British North Greenland Expedition in 1952 © Major D.E.L. Homard

The Mission and Its Objectives

The BNGE was the first large-scale British-led expedition to Greenland, involving 30 men, primarily from the military, including the Royal Navy, Royal Air Force, and Army, along with a few non-military scientists. The expedition had a broad range of scientific objectives, including geological mapping, meteorology, polar medicine, and logistics. The team established their main base at Britannia Lake and a field base at Northice, from where they conducted various scientific measurements and experiments.

Daily Life and Challenges

The archive contains over 700 message transcripts, detailing the day-to-day activities and challenges faced by the expedition members. These messages reveal the logistical hurdles, such as the breakdown of equipment and the need for resupply missions, often carried out by parachute drops from airplanes. One notable incident was the crash of an aircraft during an early resupply mission in September 1952, which resulted in the loss of the craft and injuries to the crew.

Scientific Contributions and Legacy

Despite the challenges, the BNGE made significant contributions to polar science. The team conducted extensive measurements of the ice sheet, gravimetry, and meteorology, using a combination of dog sleds and Weasel tracked military vehicles for transportation. The expedition also served as a test-bed for practices used in later polar expeditions, including the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition of 1955-1958.

Extract from a message transcript reporting measurements taken from a glacier. Ref. GEX/3/3/13 06/03/1954

Notable Participants

Several members of the BNGE went on to have distinguished careers in exploration and academia. Captain Mike Banks, who later wrote a book about the expedition, and Peter John Whyllie, a geologist, are among the notable figures. Hal Lister and Stan Paterson, both glaciologists, also had successful academic careers following their participation in the expedition.

Archive and Catalogue Process

Before the archive was transferred to Special Collections it had lain in a cupboard of the University’s Geography Department for many years. Following its chance discovery in 2013, and subsequent transfer to the University Library, an award of external funding allowed the archive to be conserved, repackaged and fully digitised.

Following this, the diligent of a work of a Robinson Bequest student has allowed us to develop a catalogue of the collection and open access to researchers. This was a complex process as many of the transcripts did not contain a date and many were not in order. Therefore, an understanding of the key activities of the expedition and the day-to-day tasks detailed in the many books written by key members of the expedition was required to help the process. Each transcript was read and key details of the message senders and recipients, as well as their content was recorded. This information was then utilised to carefully place the records in the correct chronological sequence and form the basis of the comprehensive archival catalogue which is now online.

Extract from a message containing details of work being undertaken on glaciology at Brittania Lake. Ref. GEX/2/7/23, 25/10/1953.

Conclusion

The British North Greenland Expedition archive is a treasure trove of historical and scientific information. It not only documents the achievements and hardships of the expedition but also provides valuable insights into the early days of polar exploration. For anyone interested in the history of exploration or the science of the polar regions, this archive is an invaluable resource can be requested through the Special Collections and Archives at Newcastle University and can be found here: https://specialcollections.ncl.ac.uk/gex

Further Reading

Read more about the history of the archive and its conservation in this 2014 blog post here: https://blogs.ncl.ac.uk/speccoll/2014/03/31/cold-calling-churchill-the-british-north-greenland-expedition-1952-1954-march-2014/

Find out more about some of the stories contained in the archive in this 2023 blog post: https://blogs.ncl.ac.uk/speccoll/2023/01/10/science-and-stories-from-the-british-north-greenland-expedition-1952-1954/

Find a small selection of digitised images from the archive on CollectionsCaptured here: https://cdm21051.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p21051coll156/search

Bewick the Dog-Lover

Posted on 19 March, 2025 by nspeccoll

Thomas Bewick’s A General History of Quadrupeds, first published in 1790 in Newcastle upon Tyne [Bewick, T. (1791) A General History of Quadrupeds. 2^nd edition. Newcastle-upon-Tyne: Hodgson, S., Beilby, R. & Bewick, T. (Bradshaw-Bewick Collection, Bradshaw-Bewick 761 BEW)].

Thomas Bewick (1753-1828) was an English wood engraver and author of books on animals and the natural world. Born in Northumberland, he trained as an engraver in Newcastle-upon-Tyne under Ralph Beilby, first on metal plates and later on wood blocks.

Bewick’s work is recognised for his attention to nature and his ability to carve wood blocks in fine detail, a notoriously difficult skill to acquire. His works also showcased his sense of humour – many of his books include small vignettes, called tail-pieces, showcasing amusing scenes of rural or animal life.

A tail-piece from A General History of Quadrupeds, showing a print of a dog pooing behind some rocks — A tail-piece from *A General History of Quadrupeds*, displaying Bewick’s humorous side (1791), p.246 [Bradshaw-Bewick Collection, Bradshaw-Bewick 761 BEW]

In 1790 Bewick published A General History of Quadrupeds, an encyclopaedia of wild and domesticated mammals from all over the world with prints carved by Bewick. The History is particularly thorough in its exploration of domesticated animals including horses, cattle, sheep, and dogs. There are entries for 30 different breeds of dog alone.

Bewick’s writing clearly displays his admiration for dogs in all their variety:

“The services of this truly valuable creature have been so eminently useful to the domestic interests of men in all ages, that to give the history of the Dog would be little less than to trace mankind back to their original state of simplicity and freedom…in every age Dogs have been found possessed of qualities most admirably adapted for the various purposes to which they have been from time to time applied”
(Bewick, 1791, pG 296-298).

He also shows his compassion for animals, as in this entry for the Dalmatian:

“We do not, however, admire the cruel practice of depriving the poor animal of its ears, in order to encrease (sic) its beauty: A practice so general, that we do not remember ever to have seen one of these dogs unmutilated in this way”
(Bewick, 1791, PG 310)

For several breed entries, he gives specific credit to the owners of the dogs he studied for his drawings.

Bewick’s print of a ‘Large’ water spaniel, specifically referencing the dog who modelled for the portrait as “one of the finest of its kind, in the possession of J. E. Blackett, esq; of Newcastle upon Tyne,” [Bradshaw-Bewick Collection, Bradshaw-Bewick 761 BEW]

Among the 30 breeds of dog individually listed by Bewick, many of them are recognisable to the modern day. The ‘shepherd’s dog,’ dalmatian, greyhound, pug, and Newfoundland are among those breeds still well known and possibly virtually unchanged to today.

Page 314 of Bewick’s History of Quadrupeds, showing the entry for the lurcher — Page 314 of Bewick’s *History of Quadrupeds*, showing the entry for the lurcher [Bradshaw-Bewick Collection, Bradshaw-Bewick 761 BEW]

There are also some breeds featured which are less well-known or even extinct today. The ‘lyemmer,’ or limer dog, was a medieval hunting dog used mainly to chase down big game such as wild boar. After boar became extinct in Britain, this breed ceased to exist; as Bewick notes, “It is now unknown to us,” (Bewick, 1791, p.312). The turnspit dog, still existing at the time of Bewick’s writing, was a small, short-legged dog, used to run a wheel which turned meat on a spit over the fire for even cooking. By 1790, as Bewick says,

“its services seem but little attended to; a more certain method of doing the business of the spit having superseded the labours of this industrious animal”
(Bewick, 1791, p.333)

Turnspit dogs have now gone extinct, though perhaps some of their genes linger on in modern-day mutts.

Page 333 of Bewick’s History of Quadrupeds, showing the entry for the turnspit dog — Page 333 of Bewick’s *History of Quadrupeds*, showing the entry for the turnspit dog [Bradshaw-Bewick Collection, Bradshaw-Bewick 761 BEW]

Bewick’s closing remarks on the subject of dogs includes an interesting description of dogs trained to lead the blind, a task which we may be surprised to hear about from the 18^th century:

“There are few who have not seen [a blind man], led by his Dog, through the various passages of populous towns…”
(Bewick, 1791, p.334)

Multiple editions and copies of this book and others by Bewick are available to view in the Bradshaw-Bewick, Friends, Butler, and Clarke Local collections at Newcastle University Special Collections and Archives.

Official Secrets and Computational Science – Investigating Bletchley Park with Professor Brian Randell

Posted on 28 February, 2025 by nspeccoll

Although the name “Bletchley Park” is recognisable to many today, the nature of the important work carried out by codebreakers stationed there during the Second World War was not fully understood until relatively recently.

Emeritus Professor of Computing at Newcastle University, Brian Randell’s interest in the early history of the computer led him to publish a paper in 1972 entitled “On Alan Turing and the Origins of Digital Computers”. In this paper, Professor Randell outlined his ongoing investigation into the secretive work carried out by a team of mathematicians and logisticians at Bletchley Park during the Second World War. This work aimed to crack German code and would ultimately result in the creation of Colossus, the first large-scale electronic computer. Professor Randell was particularly interested in the role played by Alan Matheson Turing (1912-1954), as well as that of John von Neumann (1903-1957), Tommy Flowers (1905-1998) and others at Bletchley Park during this time.

*Leaflet for “The Origins of Digital Computers” by Professor Randell, published in 1973 [Randell, (Professor Brian) Archive, BR/3/20/3/1]*

At the time, the details of Turing and his colleagues’ contributions to the war effort remained largely secret, with information pertaining to Bletchley still classified. As a result, Turing was instead known within scientific communities for his post-war work at the National Physical Laboratory on the Automatic Computing Engine, completed in late 1945, and at Manchester University.

In her 1959 biography of Alan, his mother, Sara Turing, wrote that during the war her son had been “…taken on as a Temporary Civil Servant in the Foreign Office, in the Department of Communications”, but stated that “no hint was ever given of the nature of his secret work, nor has it ever been revealed”. Equally uncertain was the progress that had been made at Bletchley Park regarding the development of computational machines, with the assumption being that the war largely delayed work on these sorts of devices.

Newcastle University Special Collections and Archives hold the papers of Professor Brian Randell, which span over four decades and document his professional and academic life. Included in this archive are multiple folders of correspondence relating to Professor Randell’s work on the early modern computer. These include the original correspondence from Professor Randell’s ongoing investigation into what was, at the time, still very much a secret part of British history. The secrecy surrounding British cryptographic work during the Second World War was such that a number of the responses Professor Randell received were written “in very guarded terms” so as to avoid breaking the Official Secrets Act.

The work and persistence of Professor Brian Randell would eventually result in his invitation to the Cabinet Office in 1975 to discuss the first official release of information about Colossus. After this meeting, he wrote to Turing’s mother, Sara, that “the government have recently made an official release of information which contains an explicit recognition of the importance of your son’s work to the development of the modern computer”.

*Professor Randell’s 1977 New Scientist magazine article on Bletchley Park and The Colossus [Randell (Professor Brian) Archive, BR/3/20/5/2]*

During the Cabinet Office meeting, Professor Randell was told that the Government would facilitate interviews with leading members of the Colossus Project, in order to allow him to write an approved official history of it.

While official recognition of all who worked at Bletchley Park is important, Turing’s legacy has specific relevance for LGBTQ+ History Month. In 1952, Turing reported a burglary of his home to the police. During the investigation, he told police officers that a man with whom he had been having a relationship, Arnold Murray, had been acquainted with the thief. As homosexuality was illegal in the United Kingdom, Turing was charged with “gross indecency” under Section 11 of the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 and, after submitting a guilty plea, was given the choice between imprisonment and probation. Accepting probation, Turing was made to undergo hormonal treatment designed to reduce the libido, also known as chemical castration.

His conviction also led to the removal of his security clearance, meaning he was now barred from employment by the British Government, who had engaged him in cryptographic consultancy work at GCHQ following the war. This decision was influenced in part by the recent spying scandal involving Guy Burgess, a British diplomat and double agent who had been passing official secrets to Russia. The actions of Burgess led to an investigation into security standards across the Foreign Service, and his sexuality led to “a highly confidential enquiry in the Foreign Office about the security risks of employing homosexuals”. When the Sexual Offences Act was passed through Parliament in 1967, a bar of any homosexual individuals working for the Foreign Office was imposed and was only repealed in 1991.

Alan Turing died at the age of 41 by in 1954 at his home in Wilmslow, England. An inquest at the time ruled the cause of death to be suicide, however this has been disputed both by Turing’s mother, Sara, and more recently, academic Professor Jack Copeland, who believes Turing’s death to have been an accident caused by carelessness during scientific experiments electrolysing solutions of potassium cyanide.

While Professor Randell’s persistent research helped to shed light on the scientific contributions of Turing and his colleagues at Bletchley Park, it was only in 2013 that Alan Turing was granted a posthumous royal pardon for his conviction of Gross Indecency. Three years later, the British Government introduced “Turing’s Law”, which allowed for the pardoning of 75,000 other men and women convicted of homosexuality under historic anti-gay laws in Britain.

*Copy of a photograph taken in 1951 of Alan Turing [Randell (Professor Brian) Archive, BR/3/21/4/3*

As LGBTQ history month draws to a close, we have an opportunity to remember a historic member of the queer community who had a significant impact on both the trajectory of world history and the advancement of computing science. Turing has, in recent years, become the focus of a biopic (2014’s The Imitation Game) and the face of the fifty-pound note, whilst a museum at Bletchley Park commemorates and informs the public of the crucial scientific work carried out there during the Second World War. Yet it is important to bear in mind that this history is one that has only recently been revealed, much to the credit of researchers and academics such as Professor Brian Randell, who have allowed Turing and his colleagues to take their respective places in British, scientific and queer history.

More information about the Professor Brian Randell archive can be found here.

Watch Professor Brian Randell discuss his work relating to Colossus at the National Museum of Computing in 2013

Sir Winston Churchill

Posted on 5 February, 2025 by nspeccoll

24^th January 2025 marks 60 years since the death of Sir Winston Churchill. He was born 30 November 1874 at Blenheim Place, Oxfordshire, Winston Churchill went into politics after serving in the army.

Churchill served as a Member of Parliament from 1900 – 1922, 1924 – 1964, first for the Conservatives, then the Liberal Party, before defecting back to the Conservative Party. Whilst in office for the Liberal Party during Herbert Henry Asquith’s Government he was part of the Cabinet with North East MPs Walter Runciman and Charles Philips Trevelyan. Churchill and Trevelyan were already acquainted, having both attended Harrow School at the same time.

*Portrait of Winston Church as part of the 1909 Cabinet when he was appointed President of the Board of Trade* *[Runciman (Walter) Archive, WR/30/2]*

Walter Runciman was appointed President of the Board of Education and Charles Trevelyan the Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Education at that time.

In a letter to her mother, Mary Trevelyan, known as Molly wrote –

“I foresee that he is going to be rather the friend of the future. I like him quite much and he is very keen to be pleasant to me: he was a friend of Charles before we married.”

An extract of a letter from Mary Trevelyan to her mother of her liking to Winston Churchill [Trevelyan (Charles Philips) Archive, CPT/6/1/5/2]

In the immediate years before World War I, Churchill was appointed Home Secretary, then given the First Lord of the Admiralty post. He resigned his government post in 1915 and saw active service on the Western and Belgian Fronts.

After his military service Churchill returned to Government, first as Minister of Munitions, then Secretary of State for War and Air, before becoming Secretary of State for the Colonies.

As Secretary of State for the Colonies Winston Churchill was part of the delegation at the Cairo Conference in 1921. This conference included discussion on British control in the Middle East and would eventually lead to the creation of Iraq. The other delegates were T. E. Lawrence, Major Hubert Young, Herbert Samuel, Sir Percy Cox, Ja’afar al’Askari, Sir Hugh Trenchard, Sir Geoffrey Salmond, Sasun Hasqail, Geoffrey Archer, Field Marshal Edmund Allenby.

Gertude Bell, T. E. Lawrence, Winston Churchill, Clementine Churchill at the Cairo Conference 1921 [Bell (Gertrude Archive, Gertude Bell, T. E. Lawrence, Winston Churchill, Clementine Churchill at the Cairo Conference 1921. GB/PERS/F/003]

Churchill lost his seat in the 1922 election; however, he was one of 50 members to get the Order of the Companions Honour. In 1924 he stood as Member of Parliament for Epping as the Conservative candidate and was appointed Chancellor. In the 1929 election Winston retained his seat, however it was the Labour government who were the majority party.

During the 1930s Winston Churchill was not part of the cabinet, although he retained his seat. He spoke about issues of the day, The India Question, The Rise of the Nazi Party, and the Abdication Crisis where he supported Edward. He was against the appeasement trip to Czechoslovakia.

Churchill returned to the cabinet on the day World War II broke out as First Lord of the Admiralty, then after Neville Chamberlain resigned became Prime Minister of a coalition government in 1940.

During the Second World War, Winston Churchill and became known for his rousing and patriotic speeches which were commented on.

Extract of a letter written by Charles Philips Trevelyan to his wife Mary, known as Molly about Churchill’s speech and how World War II is going –

“So Churchill has said “Let there be light” and there was light.

So the ? won’t come. But what mistaken hope to reckon on real peace by December. There is no break yet in any of the defences of Germany itself. I reckon three months of the most terrible fighting and then a year of chaos before anything like an end can be.”

Extract of a letter written by Charles Philips Trevelyan to his wife, Mary, about Churchill’s speech and how World War II was going –[Trevelyan (Charles Philips) Archive, CPT/3/110/26.

Transcriptions and audio to his War Speeches can be found on the following webpage America’s National Churchill Museum | Winston Churchill’s Speeches and Writings

Churchill and the Conservatives lost the election in 1945; however he remained as leader. In 1951 the Conservatives won the election with Winston as Prime Minister, however he was not in good health and stood down as Prime Minister in 1955. He remained as an MP until 1964.

Over the previous years Winston Churchill had suffered several strokes with the final one being on 10^th January 1965. He died 3 weeks later and was given a state funeral on 30^th January 1965.

Some say he’s the Greatest Briton that ever lived.

Grainger and Dobson’s unbuilt chapel

Posted on 30 September, 2024 by nspeccoll

Richard Grainger and John Dobson are regarded as the main movers behind the development of Newcastle town centre in the 19th century. Dobson is often cited as the main architect for the project. Grainger was the builder who raised the funds for the work and oversaw the building programmes.

Portrait of John Dobson by William Dixon (Public domain).

During his lifetime, Dobson (9 November 1787 – 8 January 1865) was probably the most noted architect in northern England. He is best-known for his work to develop the centre of Newcastle in a neoclassical style, although he designed over 100 private homes and 50 churches. In 1824 Dobson proposed that Newcastle council create a “civic palace”, with grand squares and wide tree-lined streets on the site of Anderson Place, a large house with extensive grounds. The scheme was hugely expensive and Dobson lacked the financial backing that Grainger was later able to secure for his less grand project.

Portrait of Richard Grainger, attributed to James Ramsay (Public domain).

Richard Grainger (9 October 1797 – 4 July 1861) was an ambitious builder and friend of town clerk John Clayton. Most of Dobson’s Newcastle designs were built by Grainger, including:

Eldon Square (pic)

Still the source of much controversy due to demolition of two of its three faces to free up space for the Eldon Square shopping centre, Dobson produced his Grecian-inspired designs in 1824. Most of it was built by Grainger.

Illustration of Eldon Square — Eldon Square (Local Illustrations, ILL/11/258).

St Thomas’ Church

Built to replace the Chapel of St Thomas the Martyr at the north end of the bridge over the River Tyne, which was demolished by the council to widen the road. Land belonging to St Mary Magdalene Hospital at Barras Bridge was selected as the location for the new chapel. It was designed in a modified Gothic style in 1827 and was completed by 1830 at a cost of £6,000.

The Royal Arcade

In 1832, the (in)famous Royal Arcade at the foot of Pilgrim Street was completed. Modelled after an elegant London shopping arcade, it was intended as a commercial and shopping centre but was too far removed from the town centre to be a success. Sir John Betjeman, over 100 years later, described the arcade as “a highlight of classical town planning”. Demolition was first suggested in the 1880s, but the Arcade survived until the 1960s when it was cleared to make way for the Pilgrim Street roundabout. The facade was dismantled brick by brick in 1963-64 but plans to rebuild it next to Swan House never happened. The demolition of this building is still a subject of debate to this day.

Central Station

After the opening of the High Level Bridge in 1849, a station was required for the thriving town. Dobson’s original plan of 1848 showed an ornate façade with a vast portico and an Italianate tower. The enormous train shed was made up of three arched glass roofs built in a curve on an 800-foot (240 m) radius. Dobson’s design won an award at the Paris Exhibition of 1858 but he was forced to alter his plans to produce a much less substantial portico and remove the Italianate tower. The station was completed in 1850 without the portico. In 1863, Thomas Prosser’s portico was added.

Grainger Market

Grainger offered to build a new meat market and vegetable market to replace the old flesh market. Both new markets were designed by Dobson. The meat market had pilastered arcades, 360 windows, fanlights and wooden cornices, and four avenues each 338 feet (103 m) long. It contained 180 butchers’ shops when it opened. In 1835, to celebrate the opening of the markets, a grand dinner was given in the vegetable market, with 2,000 guests.

Illustrations of the Butcher's Market — Butcher’s Market (Local Illustrations, ILL/11/204).

Grainger Town

As mentioned earlier, Dobson had proposed a new town centre to Newcastle council but had been unable to find the funding for his scheme. Grainger secured funds for buying Anderson Place for £50,000 and an additional £45,000 to purchase nearby property with the help of John Clayton. He exercised close control over the master plan for what became known as Grainger Town. Dobson is given much of the credit for the detailed design, but other architects made significant contributions, including Thomas Oliver and John and Benjamin Green. Substantial work was also carried out by two architects in Grainger’s office, John Wardle and George Walker

Grey Street

The main thoroughfare in Grainger Town, Grey Street was completed in 1837 and is regarded as the centrepiece of the redevelopment of the centre of Newcastle. The design of Grey Street is often credited solely to Dobson but he only designed the south-eastern side of the street; architects John Wardle and George Walker were responsible for the western side. Prime Minister William Gladstone described it as the country’s “best modern street”.

The West End and the chapel

Grainger received many tributes for his transformation of Newcastle. William Howitt claimed in his 1842 book Visits to Remarkable Places,

“You walk into what has long been termed the Coal Hole of the North and find yourself in a City of Palaces, a fairyland of newness, brightness and modern elegance. And who has wrought this change? It is Mr Grainger.”

Buoyed by his successes, Grainger turned his attention to Elswick, an area to the west of Newcastle, just outside the town boundary. In 1839, he acquired a large area of land there for £114,000, with the intention of building homes, factories, and the city’s major railway station. Grainger moved into Elswick Hall, proclaiming that “Elswick will one day be the centre of Newcastle”.

However, Grainger was already in financial dire straits due to overspending on previous projects. He owed Dobson a large sum of money, which he tried to reduce by charging Dobson £250 for a staircase and ceiling removed from Anderson Place. Dobson was outraged and dissolved their partnership soon after. Grainger, sought the help of Clayton to pay off his debts and left Elswick Hall. He sold the riverside section of his Elswick land to William Armstrong who built up his armaments factory there.

Grainger was correct about the development potential of Elswick; during the second half of the 19th century, the area’s population grew from 3,550 to 59,000 and it became one of the foremost industrial areas of the world.

Grainger died in 1861 at his home at 5 Clayton Street West, Newcastle, and is buried at St James Church, Benwell.

Dobson died at his home on New Bridge Street in 1865, Newcastle, and is buried in Jesmond Old Cemetery.

We have recently digitised an 1840 manuscript volume of plans produced by John Dobson for a chapel for Richard Grainger. The full manuscript is digitised and available to view on CollectionsCaptured titled Design No. II: Plans, specification and estimate for building a chapel in the township of St. John, Newcastle upon Tyne.

The title page and introduction are shown below.

Title page of plan book — Title page from **Design No. II: Plans, specification and estimate for building a chapel in the township of St. John, Newcastle upon Tyne** (Rare Books, RB-726-41-DOB-7).

Specification and contents list from plan book — Specification and contents list from **Design No. II: Plans, specification and estimate for building a chapel in the township of St. John, Newcastle upon Tyne** (Rare Books, RB-726-41-DOB-7).

The first paragraph informs the reader that this is a,

‘Specification of the several works to be done in erecting and completely finishing a chapel on a site Presented by Richard Grainger Esq. in the centre of a line of Dwelling house(s) which he is about to build on the north side of Scotswood Road in the Parish of St. Nicholas and in the parochial Chapelry of St. John, Newcastle upon Tyne.’

The chapel was probably part of Grainger’s Elswick scheme.

The manuscript contains plans, specifications and estimated costs for the construction of a chapel for Grainger’s site. Within the handwritten volume are pencil annotations, modifications to plans, and other markings and wax seals. There is also a watercolour visualisation of how the finished chapel may have looked. The item is on permanent loan from the Northern Architectural Association, whose first president, in 1859, was John Dobson.

This item was presented by Hicks & Charlewood, architects. William Searle Hicks (1849-1902 was President of the Northern Architectural Association between 1891-1892. In 1885, he went into partnership with Henry Clement Charlewood (1856-1943). Charlewood was President of the Northern Architectural Association between 1910-1911.

The text is all handwritten and gives instructions as to the construction of the chapel, which was designed to seat 1064 people. It describes construction, and specifies where materials are to be sourced. This includes wood from Gottenburg, Memet or Riga, and Welsh lady slates. However, some materials could be found closer to home,

‘The mortar to be made of the best stone lime from Cleadon, Whitley, or Allawash and the best sharp sand from the mouth of the Derwent River, in the proportion of one part of lime to two parts of sand.’

Cleadon is just south of South Shields and remains of the quarry are still visible. All plastering was to be done with Cleadon lime. Whitley (now Whitley Bay) Quarry is now occupied by Marden Quarry and stretched to the site of Whitley Bay Cricket Club pitch. Before the establishment of the railways, Whitley Quarry was probably the biggest lime producer in Northumberland. By 1850 it was in decline, with the flooded portion in use as a reservoir. There were (and still are) numerous quarries near Allerwash, Newbrough, and Fourstones in the Tyne Valley.

For the glazing, Dobson specifies the use of ‘Newcastle 2nd Crown glass’. Crown glass manufacture was one of the two most common cheap processes for making window glass until the 19th century. It had a distinctive disc-like appearance, common in church windows.

An example of ‘Newcastle 2nd Crown glass’ with the distinctive disc-like glass.

Within the hand-lettered specifications are drawn diagrams showing how individual parts of the chapel should be constructed.

Page with integrated diagrams from plan book — Page with integrated diagrams from **Design No. II: Plans, specification and estimate for building a chapel in the township of St. John, Newcastle upon Tyne** (Rare Books, RB-726-41-DOB).

Page of specifications and diagrams for the ‘octangular’ tower, which have been crossed out in pencil — Specifications for the ‘octangular’ tower, which have been crossed out in pencil from **Design No. II: Plans, specification and estimate for building a chapel in the township of St. John, Newcastle upon Tyne** (Rare Books, RB-726-41-DOB).

To provide an easy-to-understand representation of the chapel, there is a watercolour visualisation of the building.

Watercolour visualisation of the proposed chapel (Rare Books, RB-726-41-DOB). — Watercolour visualisation of the proposed chapel from **Design No. II: Plans, specification and estimate for building a chapel in the township of St. John, Newcastle upon Tyne** (Rare Books, RB726.41 DOB).

One of the most ingenious devices in the manuscript can be found on the page showing the plan of the east transverse section. This has two overlay flaps with changes or alternative designs for that portion of the chapel. As the chapel was never completed, we do not know which variation was selected!

Plan with overlay flaps showing alterations or alternative designs of the east transverse section of the chapel

The images above show a plan with overlay flaps showing alterations or alternative designs from Design No. II: Plans, specification and estimate for building a chapel in the township of St. John, Newcastle upon Tyne (Rare Books, RB-726.41 DOB).

The seals

The specification, estimates, and plans were approved on 14^th July 1840. Each approval is accompanied by two wax seals and a signature. The seals reveal bear the name of the COMMISSIONERS FOR BUILDING NEW CHURCHES. The signature is of W. J. Rodber, who was secretary of the Society for Promoting the Enlargement, Building and Repairing of Churches and Chapels. This organisation was founded in 1818 to provide funds for the building and enlargement of Anglican churches throughout England and Wales. The Society required building request applications to be submitted in a consistent and uniform fashion, with drawings and plans of the proposed work. So, in addition to providing Grainger with plans and costings, this is possibly also the purpose of these detailed chapel plans.

Enlarged stamps, showing the imprints of the COMMISSIONERS FOR BUILDING NEW CHURCHES (Rare Books, RB726.41 DOB).

A Northern Legacy: Spotlight on Flambard Press, in memory of Peter Lewis

Posted on 9 September, 2024 by nspeccoll

Flambard Press was a small-scale, independent, publishing press focused on new and neglected writers. It was started by Margret and Peter Lewis in 1990 and ran until 2012, supported by Arts Council England funding. This press was not a household name; they published their 129 books in small releases and focused on mostly northern authors whose work was otherwise neglected and unrecognised. Peter and Margaret worked out of the Phillip Robinson Library before moving the press to their home near Hexham, making a great deal of difference to the northern arts scene using less than £30,000 worth of funding a year. The two worked tirelessly and the Flambard Press archive at Newcastle University shows that Peter Lewis organised the printing of their books personally, including those published by his wife Margaret. They were involved in every aspect of their books’ publication, from editing, to cover design, to marketing – each aspect personalised and considered to get the best from the resources they had.

Photograph of Margaret and Peter Lewis — The photo was published in The Journal and taken on 24 April 1991. The caption was ‘Partners in Crime’.

Despite the size and capacity of Flambard, they gained a great deal of recognition in their 22 years of operation. Their writers were nominated for the Booker Prize, the Whitbread Poetry Prize and the Whitbread First Novel Prize, among many others. The writers that Flambard worked with, though starting out unknown, frequently did not remain so. Many of the authors have become household names across the north of England and stretching out into the whole of the UK. Particularly notable is Neil Astley, now the influential editor/founder of Bloodaxe Books (founded 1978), whose patrons include Poet Laureate Dame Carol Ann Duffy and Chancellor of Newcastle University Dr Imtiaz Dharker. Another notable author published by Flambard Press is Val McDermid, prolific Scottish crime writer and winner of the Crime Writer’s Association Diamond Dagger in 2010; published her second collection of short stories Stranded with Flambard Press in 2005. Also, Courttia Newland, a British writer of Jamaican and Barbadian heritage who has been awarded the Tayner Barbers Award for science fiction writing and the Roland Rees Bursary for playwriting. These three authors are only a small sample of the depth and talent of the authors who worked with Peter and Margaret; because of their small capacity Flambard had to be selective with the writers they worked with and whose talent they would put their considerable talent and effort into. This critical judgement paid off with the press receiving recognition and awards well beyond its size.

Flambard Press inspired a loyalty in their authors that those who read the acknowledgements sections of mass produced books rarely witness. Rather than lukewarm statements thanking a corporate entity and switching from publisher to publisher with little ceremony; Flambard Press was a family. It was run by a family and its authors were taken into that family, without scruple. Although Flambard provided a jumping off point for many incredibly successful authors, it is the importance of the press to the more unknown authors that is so visible in the special collections archives. Kelly Swain, author of Darwin’s Microscope, said about Flambard when it closed; “Flambard Press made me believe I could do this writing thing. That I should do it. And I love them for that, and I feel a fierce loyalty to the press” (Farewell, Flambard – Kelley Swain (wordpress.com)). Similarly, Martin Edwards, another crime author in the Flambard roster, in his tribute to Peter Lewis on the event of his death on his blog, said about his book Dancing for the Hangman that it “didn’t make any of us a fortune, but I’m still proud of it”. This seems to be Flambard’s unofficial ethos, they didn’t search for funding from private donors or work under a cooperate umbrella; Peter and Margaret worked for the love of literature and for the betterment of northern writing. The Flambard outfit was small and content to remain so if it allowed writers that would not otherwise see the light of day to be recognised.

This family-oriented ideology makes for a moving experience when looking at the Flambard Press archives. After searching through files on individual authors; skim reading magazines with favourable reviews; and acknowledgements of prizes the Flambard family had won; by sheer luck the final file I looked at was one containing administrative documents for the company. An innocuous start, expecting a thin file with employee lists and financial documents, I was shocked when a full to bursting file landed on my desk, containing what appeared to be reams of letters and emails. This file, clearly lovingly compiled, by photocopying handwritten notes; taking extracts from magazines and printing off emails; contains the legacy of Flambard Press. The press dissolved unexpectedly in 2012 after their Arts Council funding had been reallocated elsewhere, and this was the response. Letter after letter, not addressed to Flambard Press or to ‘the editor’ as so many are; but to Peter, Margaret and Will (Mackie, the managing editor at the time) expressing their sympathy, sorrow and offering any kind of help they could possibly give the people of the press, as well as the press itself. This file contained testimony of the hope and kindness Peter, Margret and their employees had given the authors they worked with, the eloquently written tributes are too numerous to cite here but here is a selection:

“I just wanted to say again how good it has been to work with you over the last twenty years. The fact that you had faith in that first book set me on track and your support has been vital all along”
– Cynthia Fuller (Instructions for the Desert, Background Music and more)

“I can’t believe it. I saw a post by Simon Thirsk on FB and thought, well they’ll never do that. But they have.”
– Courttia Newland (A Book of Blues)

“Please pass on my grateful thanks to Peter and Margaret. They took Fear of Thunder on when no one else wanted it, and hopefully it’s various success have repaid their faith in it.”
– Andrew Forster (Fear of Thunder, Territory)

“I have appreciated being a Flambard poet. I want to express my sincere thanks for your dedication. It felt the perfect place to be a poet. The books were produced to the highest standards and the covers were inspiring.”
– Jackie Litherland (The Apple Exchange, The Work of the Wind, The Absolute Bonus of Rain)

The closure of Flambard did not go unnoticed outside of those who were directly affected by it; Carol Ann Duffy (Poet Laureate at the time) mentioned Flambard by name in her poem ‘A Cut Back’. She wrote:

Three little presses went to market, Flambard, Arc and Salt;
had their throats cut ear to ear and now it’s hard to talk.
(Guardian, 2011)

A copy of this poem can be found in the Flambard archive; diligently highlighted; presumably by the person who compiled the file that is an eloquent lament to a northern icon.

The legacy of Flambard Press, and of Peter and Margaret Lewis, is contained in these archives, in the letters from well-wishers and, lastingly, in the books the Press created. Flambard did so much good with so little in the north of England, for writers that could not or did not want to publish using mainstream publishing houses. Their 129 titles will remain in circulation for many years, and the writers whose careers Flambard began, or made, will continue to create amazing fiction.

This blog post was written in memory of Peter Lewis (1937-2024) co-founder of Flambard Press.

The Death of Theodore M. Trevelyan – A Human Story:

Posted on 20 June, 2024 by nspeccoll

Author: George Evans-Hulme, Associate Fellow of the Royal Historical Society is currently researching for his MPhil in Modern British History at the University of Cambridge. This post is one output of a visit to Newcastle University Special Collections to investigate the Mary Moorman archive.

The wonder of archival research is that it connects us to the people of the past who were once as real as we are but have now passed away. From the remnants they left behind, we can catch a glimpse of their hopes and dreams, their thoughts and passions.

The Mary Moorman archive provides a deep insight into the life of Mary Moorman (a Wordsworth scholar) and that of her father, the eminent historian George Macaulay Trevelyan.

The material within the Moorman archive paints a detailed picture of Trevelyan’s public-spirited life, including his work with the National Trust and as an ambulance driver during the First World War.

It also sheds light on the great tragedy of the historian’s life: the death of his eldest son, Theodore, at the age of four and a half.

Theodore was an intelligent, humorous child who delighted in dressing up as one of his beloved Household Cavalry soldiers and reciting poetry. He died unexpectedly of appendicitis on a family trip to Swanage in April 1911.

George Trevelyan, and his wife Janet, were initially numb with grief. George’s sister-in-law, Molly, who was with them, thought the couple were ‘wonderfully brave’ in the days that followed. But all the heartbroken George could bring himself to say about his eldest son was: ‘he will never grow up’.

Theodore was taken up to the Lake District for burial. ‘It was raining, and mists were on the hills’ when Theodore and his parents arrived in Windermere. But the sight of the ‘primroses and the anemones in the woods and the green spring’ brought some consolation to George and Janet.

Theodore was buried close to nature in the fellside graveyard of the Holy Trinity Church, with ‘the flowers and deep peace of the mountain resting over him’. The landscape of Langdale, which already meant so much to the grieving couple, brought them ‘courage’ and the comfort of the familiar backdrop helped them process their loss.

The Holy Trinity Church, Langdale, where Theodore was buried in 1911. His parents were later laid to rest with him in the Lakeland graveyard, beneath the bracken and the rocks of the fells which meant so much to them – Source: GOT 9/28/109

After Theodore’s death, G. M. Trevelyan decided to formally purchase the family’s holiday cottage in Langdale. He had ‘long thought of it’ and, now Theodore was buried there, the Langdale Valley took on even more importance as ‘the place of my heart’ – Source: MM 7/3

In the days that followed, George Trevelyan was inspired to reflect on his own life. He no longer aspired to a ‘great and important future’. Now, ‘the family is what I care for, and looking at nature’.

Janet Trevelyan, from the outset, had sought comfort from the happier memories of Theodore. In the Lakes, she decided to write down ‘a continuous story’ of his life. This story was shared with family and friends as a memorial to the young boy.

Forty years later, with the encouragement of her husband, Theodore’s story was published publicly. Janet felt that, even so many years later, ‘the larger world should have a share in him’.

Extract from Janet Trevelyan’s letter to her Mother-in-Law, Caroline Trevelyan, requesting she send any letters detailing ‘little stories’ that she could use to help write the ‘continuous story of all that I can remember’ of Theodore – Source: GOT 9/28/101

Some of Janet’s relatives have since suggested that it was perhaps a mistake to make so private a situation public. However, as a letter written to Mary Moorman, Theodore’s elder sister, several decades later, explains: ‘sometimes seeing a sort of new picture of a grief, and how it can be borne, shifts all one’s own learning towards a new kind of love and understanding’.

For the historian, who requires a cold analytical eye but also a sympathetic heart, these records of the past allow us to connect with a family who suffered a dreadful tragedy more than a century ago. They also remind us that others have lived and walked this earth as we do today but are now all gone, like ghosts at dawn – a point which G. M. Trevelyan himself once made a very long time ago.

Manners Shaping Morals: Conduct literature at Newcastle University

Posted on 3 June, 2024 by nspeccoll

Conduct literature is a little-known genre nowadays; it has been absorbed mostly into magazine culture and advice you get from your grandma. But in the 18th and 19th centuries it was a genre of literature that shaped, and was shaped by, popular culture. Conduct literature is texts that give advice on how to behave in polite society and how to run a successful household; in other words, on a person’s conduct. This advice ranged from the practical; how much credit it was acceptable to run up with household vendors; to the philosophical; how best to educate children to make them into functional citizens. The vast majority of these texts were aimed at women: in their capacity as mothers, as wives and as daughters. These manuals formed an influential industry in the late 18^th and early 19^th century as the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars raged and the British propaganda machine cultivated the idea of the French as immoral and dissolute compared to Britain’s steadfast morality. This deep-seated aspiration for ethical superiority is seen in the conduct literature of the age, conduct literature found in the 18^th century collection at Newcastle University. As part of this collection the University holds books by Hannah More and Mary Wollstonecraft (among others), authors who, despite their varied political viewpoints, used their writing as a way of giving women more power.

Title page from Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Woman — Title page from *Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Woman* (18^th Century Coll, 18th C. Coll 396 WOL)

Mary Wollstonecraft wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), widely regarded to be one of the first works of feminist philosophy and the precursor to the organised feminist movement. A first edition of this is held in the 18^th Century Collection in the Phillip Robinson Library, previously owned by Joseph Cowen, revolutionary Member of Parliament for Newcastle Upon Tyne. This manifesto for female education was a well-known, radical example of the conduct literature genre. Wollstonecraft famously wrote in her introduction to the volume: “My own sex, I hope, will excuse me, if I treat them like rational creatures, instead of flattering their fascinating graces, and viewing them as if they were in a state of perpetual childhood, unable to stand alone.” (6, emphasis original). This sentence is a decisive judgement on both women and the men who interact with them. Wollstonecraft invokes rationality to justify the language of her doctrine; a characteristic that was considered the defining trait of humanity in the 18^th century. She also implies that women were treated as being in a ‘state of perpetual childhood’ by men in this era, something that can be seen in the conduct literature written by men in the 18^th century. For instance, in Fordyce’s Sermons for Young Women he states, “The Almighty has thrown you upon the protection of our sex. To yours we are indebted on many accounts. He that abuses you dishonours his mother. Virtuous women are the sweeteners, the charm of human life.” (9). Not only does Fordyce imply women to be incapable of functioning without male protection in this statement, but he also designates them as ‘the charm of human life’ thus suggesting them not to be human at all. This is where the different political viewpoints of the female conduct literature writers held in Special Collections at Newcastle are united. Although they differ in how it should be expressed and used, each author acknowledges the female capacity for rationality.

Title page from More’s strictures — Title page from *More’s strictures* (18^th Century Collection, 18th C. Coll 828.69 MOR)

Another deeply influential text that is held in the 18^th Century Collection at Newcastle is conservative moralist Hannah More’s Strictures on the Modern System of Female Education (1799). This is one of many texts by Hannah More that is held by the university, but Strictures is her best well-known work. The text discusses both the practicalities and the moralities of raising children, especially young women. More grounds her philosophy in the importance of the family in raising future citizens and in shaping society. On the title page of the fourth edition copy held in the Newcastle University archives (shown above) she places a quote from Lord Halifax which states, “May you so raise your character that you may help to make the next age a better thing, and leave posterity in your debt, for the advantage it shall receive by your example.” This statement embodies More’s attitude to female morality and education; in Strictures she passes judgement on aristocratic women and their perceived indolence. More, like Wollstonecraft, values the emerging middle-class and their work ethic, manifesting in women through their cultivation of useful employment such as mending, rather than the frivolous, impractical embroidery typically undertaken by the aristocracy. When quoting Lord Halifax, More also invokes the concept of debt to a nation; she perceives women as being as much the cause of Britain’s intellectual superiority as men and as owing their full potential to their country.

The idea that citizens owe their nation morality stems from the conflict with France mentioned earlier; the prevailing opinion in Britain was that the French were immoral and prone to excess, and therefore one way in which Britain was superior to them was through their morality. This created an anxiety around female morality that both informed and was informed by the conduct literature genre, including those held by Newcastle University. Hannah More and Mary Wollstonecraft are two of the most well-known conduct literature authors from the 18^th century and occupy opposite ends of the political spectrum. Nevertheless, they are united in their anxiety about female morality during this period and how any degradation of that would affect the nation at large. This collective anxiety eventually led to a societal idolisation of the middle class, whose ideology and ethics would come to set the standard for British society. Mary Wollstonecraft and Hannah More, therefore, form part of a genre that shaped British culture and therefore its history.

Written by bequest student Charlotte Davison, Postgraduate student from the School of English Literature, Language and Linguistics.